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Food Securi. Li, M. Genomic analyses identify distinct patterns of selection in domesticated pigs and Tibetan wild boars. Librado, P. The evolutionary origin and genetic makeup of domestic horses. Lindahl, T. Facts and artifacts of ancient DNA. Cell 90, 1—3. Lindblad-Toh, K. The two uncontrolled processes are due to the limited size of the population known as inbreeding and the random changes in gene frequencies genetic drift. The two partially controlled processes are natural selection in captivity that accounts for selection imposed on captive populations that cannot be attributed to active or artificial selection and relaxation of natural selection expectably accompanying the transition from wild to captive environments [ 35 ].
At last, the fifth genetic process is controlled, known as active selection, because changes are directional [ 34 , 35 ]. Domesticated animals have been profoundly modified during domestication.
Indeed, the variation range of certain traits within a domesticated species occasionally exceeds that in whole families or even orders [ 36 , 37 ]. Modifications resulting from domestication concern morphoanatomy, physiology, behavior, and genetics [ 31 , 35 , 38 , 39 , 40 ].
Behavior is probably the first to have been modified during domestication [ 35 ]. Nevertheless, behavioral traits neither appeared nor disappeared during domestication but rather are the response thresholds that changed [ 34 , 35 ].
One of the most remarkable behavioral changes shared by all domesticates is their tolerance of proximity to or complete lack of fear of people [ 31 , 37 , 39 ]. Besides, because humans provide shelter, food, and protection against predators, domesticated animals most often express a lower incidence of antipredator behaviors and show lower motivation for foraging [ 34 ]. More generally, mood, emotion, agnostic and affiliative behavior, as well as social communication all have been modified in some way by domestication [ 39 ].
Most domesticated animals are also more precocious than their wild counterparts [ 34 ]. The activity of their reproductive system became enhanced and relatively uncoupled from the environmental photoperiod, and they all acquired the capacity to reproduce in any season and more often than once a year [ 37 ]. At last, the most spectacular and obvious changes concern morphology, among which are the animal size dwarfs and giants , proportions fewer vertebrae, shorter tails , color, length and texture of coat, wavy or curly hair, rolled tails, and floppy ears or other manifestations of neoteny the retention of juvenile features into sexual maturity [ 37 , 39 ].
In most domesticated species, head or brain size has decreased [ 34 ]. The most illustrative example of such considerable changes is the morphological variations in dogs [ 37 ].
At the beginning of the twentieth century, modern breeding programs were initiated, leading to dramatic changes in productivity, e. Even though the decision to consider farmed or captive animals as domesticated is subjective and arbitrary [ 35 , 41 ], most authors agree that about 40 species around the world that directly or indirectly contribute to agriculture are domesticated; this number varies between 20 and 50 following the definitions used for a domesticated animal [ 36 , 42 , 43 , 44 ].
Several of those domesticated species have a distinct scientific name than their wild ancestors [ 25 ]. For the five most valuable species, the domestication resulted in the creation of hundreds of breeds, particularly in the past centuries [ 42 , 45 , 46 ]. In France, the article D. Breeds have therefore both a biological sense common features and a social acceptance group of breeders ; the relative importance of the latter increased in the past years, for scientists as well as in the application of policies [ 47 ].
The wild ancestor of cattle is a group of races of the now extinct aurochs Bos primigenius [ 48 , 49 , 50 ]. The aurochs, the last specimen of which died in a Polish park in , had a very wide geographic distribution, which extended from East Asia to Europe and North Africa [ 42 , 48 , 50 ]. Traditionally, two major types of domestic cattle are considered: zebu Bos indicus which have a prominent thoracic hump and taurine Bos taurus , which do not [ 40 , 42 , 49 , 50 ].
However, these two species fully interbreed, and a meta-analysis of different microsatellite datasets revealed taurine-zebu admixture over Europe, southwest Asia, and Africa [ 40 , 45 , 49 , 50 ].
Molecular evidence suggest that these two species came from two independent domestication events: zebu cattle were domesticated in the Indus valley region ca. However, Larson and Burger [ 29 ] recently suggested that only the latter was domesticated, while zebu may have resulted from the introgression of wild zebu populations into taurine cattle that were transported eastward. During several millennia, extensive gene flow among different groups of domestic cattle, as well as with aurochs until its extinction, was possible, leading to relatively high effective population sizes and preventing genetic drift at the regional scale [ 40 , 48 , 50 , 51 ].
This might partly explain the relatively large cattle gene pool despite a likely bottleneck at the time of domestication [ 50 ]. Besides, it is also possible that other species were crossed with cattle in some areas of the world, including the yak Bos grunniens in Nepal or banteng Bos javanicus in Southeast Asia and Indonesia, which also contribute to maintain or increase genetic variability [ 40 ].
The large size of cattle and its low growth, as well as the early use for milk or traction, imply relatively low levels of directed selection during millennia [ 51 ]. However, this situation changed dramatically about years ago with the emergence of breed concept [ 50 ]. The first cattle herd book was published in Britain in [ 49 ]. Since that time, stronger selection pressures have been applied to local populations followed by standardization of the desired conformation and performance, such as high milk yield for dairy cattle breeding programs [ 49 ].
This led to an isolation of breeds from each other ca. Nevertheless, gene flow between neighboring regions did not completely stop, as deliberate upgrading was realized in order to increase production characteristics by using bulls of other populations from the same or a different country [ 45 ]. More recently, the number of males involved in reproduction schemes has drastically decreased with the expansion of artificial insemination, leading to another strong reduction of effective population size of breeds and inexorably to a genetic drift and loss of alleles [ 46 , 50 , 63 ].
For example, at the worldwide level, the Holstein cattle has an effective population size of about 50 [ 50 ]. This strong decrease of the effective population size might explain the strong reduction in fertility as well as the genetic diseases observed in this breed [ 50 ].
An even more extreme result was found in Japan, where the Japanese black cattle had an effective population size of Another extreme case of low genetic variability is a feral British breed, Chillingham cattle, for which 24 out of 25 microsatellite loci were found homozygous [ 46 ].
Inversely, numerous cattle breeds still have substantial nucleotide diversity, indicating a large ancestral effective population size [ 46 ]. In the past decades, a few of the most productive breeds were imported throughout the world at the expense of local, apparently less productive populations [ 45 ]. BP, before present. If no information was found, cells were left empty. Note that the number of breeds per species varies between authors. The wild ancestor of domestic pigs is boar Sus scrofa [ 42 , 64 ].
Wild boars occurred throughout Eurasia and North Africa [ 42 ]. Chinese breeds originated in East Asia, whereas European breeds are believed to have originated in Southwest Asia [ 42 , 67 ]. These domestication events were separated not only by thousands of kilometers but also by thousands of years [ 65 ].
During millennia, it is likely that out-crossing of domestic pigs with wild boar was common in traditional pig husbandry across Europe [ 52 , 67 ].
By the late middle ages, European and Asian domestic pigs were genetically very different because they were based on wild boar populations that diverged around 1 million years ago, and for thousands of years, they were submitted to selection pressures on very different traits [ 64 , 68 ]. By the late eighteenth to early nineteenth century, strict organized breeding was adopted to improve and develop livestock breeds, particularly in Britain, as a reaction to increasing demand for meat in the wake of the industrial revolution [ 64 , 66 ].
European breeders turned also their attention to Asia and imported Chinese pigs to improve their breeding stock [ 40 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. From the eighteenth century, pig breeds were selectively bred for specific production traits such as early maturation, rapid growth, and increased prolificacy.
In addition, the coat color phenotype which includes both skin and hair pigmentation was another morphological trait often used during the selective breeding process. Substantial changes body size, color, body shape, skull morphology, ear carriage, behavior, prolificacy, teat number, and other traits occurred in breeds over a short period of time, resulting in the development of numerous distinct pig breed phenotypes [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].
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You cannot download interactives. Agricultural communities developed approximately 10, years ago when humans began to domesticate plants and animals. By establishing domesticity, families and larger groups were able to build communities and transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle dependent on foraging and hunting for survival. Select from these resources to teach your students about agricultural communities. Mesopotamia is thought to be one of the places where early civilization developed.
It is a historic region of West Asia within the Tigris-Euphrates river system. In fact, the word Mesopotamia means "between rivers" in Greek. Home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia these peoples are credited with influencing mathematics and astronomy.
Use these classroom resources to help your students develop a better understanding of the cradle of civilization. Hunter-gatherer cultures forage or hunt food from their environment. Often nomadic, this was the only way of life for humans until about 12, years ago when archaeologic studies show evidence of the emergence of agriculture.
Human lifestyles began to change as groups formed permanent settlements and tended crops. There are still a few hunter-gatherer peoples today.
Explore the lifestyle of hunter-gatherers in your classroom with these resources. Humans relied on hunting and gathering practices to survive for thousands of years before the development of agriculture.
This more reliable food supply meant humans could stay in one place and gave rise to settled communities and cities. These urban civilizations had larger populations, unique architecture and art, systems of government, different social and economic classes, and a division of labor.
Learn more about the rise of cities with these resources. Explore the origins of farming and domestication in the Fertile Crescent. The development of agricultural about 12, years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.
Join our community of educators and receive the latest information on National Geographic's resources for you and your students. Skip to content. Twitter Facebook Pinterest Google Classroom. The domestication process Domestication happens through selective breeding. Share Tweet Email. Why it's so hard to treat pain in infants.
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